Chapters

1. Introduction
2. Approaches
3. Research Process
4. Ethical Consideration
5. Review of Literature
6. Hypothesis and Estimation
7. Research instruments
8. Data Collection and Analysis
9. Statistics for Nurses
10. Reporting and Communicating
11. Writing Research Proposals
12. Terminology
13. References

APPROACHES

• There can be two broad approaches to nursing research, quantitative and qualitative approach. (Brockopp & Hastings-Tolsma, 2003).
• Approaches may also be classified as basic research and applied research.

Quantitative Research

• Quantitative Research is an approach to structuring knowledge by determining how much of a given behaviour, characteristic or phenomenon present.
• Quantitative Research methods are particularly concerned with objectivity and ability to generalize the findings to others.
• It is based on the fundamental assumptions of prediction, manipulation, and control.
• By quantitative method of research we mean the traditional scientific methods characterized by deductive reasoning, objectivity, quazi-experiments, statistical techniques, and control. In contrast the qualitative method is characterized by inductive reasoning, subjectivity, discovery, description, and process orienting (Reichardt & Cook, 1979).
• The outcome depending on the method can be derived from description, interpretation, and analysis (Ashworth, 1997).
• Quantitative research methods include:
  • True Experiment
  • Quasi-Experiment
  • Meta-Analysis

Qalitative Research

• Qualitative research is an approach to structuring knowledge that utilizes methods of inquiry that emphasize subjectivity and the meaning of the experience to the individual.
• Qualitative research is an inductive approach to discovering or expanding knowledge. It requires the involvement of the researcher in the identification of the meaning or relevance of a particular phenomenon to the individual. Analysis and interpretation in this method are not generally dependent upon the quantification of observations (Brockopp &Hastings-Tolsma, 2003).
• Qualitative research approach can be of several forms:
  • phenomenological,
  • philosophical,
  • historical,
  • grounded theory method or
  • ethnographic research.
• Qualitative research methods include:
  • Ethnography
  • Case Study
  • Suvey
  • Focus Groups
  • Discourse
  • Text Analysis
  • Quantitative Description
  • Prediction
• The differentiation between qualitative and quantitative research is less than clear-cut (Polit & Hugler, 1999).
• Further categorization of research approaches also includes basic research, applied research and epidemiological research.

Basic Research

Applied Research

Epidemiologic Research

• Epidemiology is an approach to generating knowledge that uses quantitative research methods to understand the incidence, distribution, and control health problems within a population.
• Epidemiologic studies can be categorized as observational or experimental.
• Observational studies include cohort, case control, cross-sectional and ecological designs.
• Experimental studies include randomized controlled trails and the cross-over designs.
• Observational Studies do not attempt to manipulate variables in a systematic fashion; instead, inferences are made on the basis of an ongoing series of observations.
• Some of the most common observational studies include the cohort study, the panel study, and the case-control study.
• In a cohort study, groups of people who share some common characteristics are followed over the course of time.
• These studies, which are often prospective, resample the same population of individuals on repeated occasions
• However, the exact participants in the study may not be the same on repeated observations.
• A panel study is similar to a cohort study; however, it has the stricter requirement that exactly the same individuals who were in the original sample are followed at each repeated assessment.
• Cohort and panel studies are considered to be longitudinal designs, which make inferences about changes over the course of time.
• Cross-sectional studies differ from longitudinal studies in that they examine different groups of individuals at the same point in time.
• To make inferences about drug use in college, for example, the cross-sectional method would require sampling of each current class such that freshmen could be compared to sophomores, juniors, and seniors.
• These individuals would not be members of the same class or birth cohort.
• A case-Control methodology compares a group of people with a diagnosed disease (cases) with one or more groups that have not been given the same diagnosis.
• Case-control studies are typically retrospective because they make inferences about events that have caused currently diagnosed cases.
• Longitudinal studies are often prospective and have the advantage of documenting the antecedents of new cases.
• Observational studies often used correlational and multivariate statistical techniques.
• Variables that are uncontrolled through the experimental design are often adjusted for using statistical methods.
• In contrast to observational studies in which important variables are not controlled, experimental studies typically involve the systematic manipulation of variables.
• Methodological approaches to nursing research can be of following nature.

See also Action Research in Nursing